Gender Differences in Mental Illness Experiences

Gender Differences in Mental Illness Experiences Title: In what ways does gender shape the experience of mental illness? Introduction Women and mental health is a vast topic and we do not presume to cover all aspects of it within the confines of this essay. We will, however, explore a number of relevant themes in some detail by particular reference to peer reviewed literature on the subject. In doing so, we recognise the fact that it is vital to make a critical assessment of the literature as, in any branch of medically related work, it is vital to acquire a firm evidence base. (Berwick D 2005). Much of the literature that we have assessed for consideration amounts to little more than simple opinion on a subject, and as such, is only of use as an opinion rather than a fact that has been subject to proper scientific scrutiny. (Green Britten 1998). In this essay we take note of opinions but aim to present verifiable facts. We do know that mental illness in the UK is associated with a significant burden of both disability and morbidity in general, and this will vary with both the severity of the illness at any given time and also the nature of the illness itself. (Annandale, E1998). A number of studies have shown that, as a lifetime experience, nearly half of the population will suffer some kind of quantifiable psychological or psychiatric disorder. (Bayer, 1987) The actual incidence of morbidity is hard to assess accurately. Firstly because doctors tend to under-diagnose positive psychiatric morbidity and secondly because there is a general reluctance to seek medical help with this type of complaint. It has been suggested that only 40% of people with a significant mood, anxiety or substance misuse problem will actually seek help in the first year of the problem becoming apparent. (Boswell G Poland F 2004) In the context of this essay we should note that, in broad terms, the overall rates of psychiatric disorder are approximately equal in both men and women, but the significant differences between the sexes are found in the patterns of how the disorders manifest themselves. (Castle DJ et al 2001) It is also fair to comment that an examination of the literature seems to suggest that the morbidity which appears to be associated with mental disorders has been the subject of more attention and research than the actual determinants and mechanisms that appear to be significant in both the promotion of mental health, and protection against mental illness, together with those factors which appear to give a degree of resilience against stress and other adversities which are gender specific. ( Rogers Pilgrim 2002) Gender differences We do know that a number of psychiatric illnesses have different rates of presentation. Some, such as schizophrenia have gender differential modes of presentation and illness trajectory (Kornstein S Clayton A 2002). Just why should this be? A number of authors point to various features of gender difference that may account for this difference. Castle (et al 2001) spend a large proportion of their book differentiating the male and female brain in terms of the effect of testosterone on neurodevelopment. While this is undeniably a source of difference, it would appear that their argument rather falls apart when other authors point to the fact that the differences that we are considering here are actually better correlated with both gender and culture than actual biological sex. (Pattison 2001) Gender has much deeper socio-economic and cultural implications than simply a sexual consideration. It is gender that is one of the prime determinants of the differential power and status factors that influence the degree of control that both men and women have over their socio-economic situation and social position in their own cultural hierarchy. This, in turn, determines both their susceptibility, and indeed their exposure, to significant mental health risks. (Busfield J 1996) We have already alluded, in passing, to the differential incidence of various illnesses. We know that depression and anxiety related patterns of illness, together with those that have a significant element of somatosisation of their symptomatology, are more likely to occur in women than men with a ratio of about 3:1. Illnesses such as reactive (unipolar) depression is found to occur with double the frequency in women, when compared to men. This particular disease process is statistically the most common mental health problem that affects women, but it also tends to be more persistent in women both in terms of longevity of the episode and in frequency of relapse. (APA 1994) Gender differences are also apparent when it comes to a consideration of substance abuse, however it is usual to find the reverse ratio in most studies on the subject. Alcohol abuse and dependence will occur 2.5 times more frequently in men than women. It is not certain whether these changes are primarily cultural or biological, as they do vary to a degree between different cultures, but the sex difference is generally found. (Kraemer S 2000) Unlike the unipolar depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, like schizophrenia, has no differential rate of presentation although there are defined differences in the disease trajectory in terms of age at presentation, the frequency and nature of the first rank psychotic symptoms. This may have a bearing on the longer term sequelae such as social readjustment and long term disease process outcome. (Kaplan HI et al 1991) It is also a demonstrable fact that the degree of morbidity rises exponentially with multiple degrees of comorbidity. In studies on the subject, women outnumber men in this area as well. This consideration then begs the question, â€Å"just what are the gender specific different factors that determine mental health or the susceptibility to mental illness?† We have already suggested that many factors are not purely biological, and a number of different papers point to the fact that many of the triggers and stressor factors which can be associated with mental illness, are also gender specific. The gender based role in a particular society ( certainly in the UK), will produce different exposure to different stressors and negative life experiences. Equally it will give different exposure to the protective effect of a positive life experience. (Moynihan C 1998) We can cite specific examples in this regard. Women are frequently the domestic target of male-based violence. This factor is probably important in the fact that women have the highest incidence of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).(Jewkes R 2002) There is still a gender gap in the earnings tables, both in total lifetime earnings and also in average earning levels. This implies that women tend to be less financially independent and more socio-economically deprived (on average) that males. In many societies this is also translated into lower social status that the male and this is often also associated with fewer social freedoms – all of which may be associated with an increasing psychological co-morbidity. (Gordon G et al 2001) There is also the consideration that in the majority of cultures, it is the woman who typically bears the major impact of care in the family, not only of the children, but also of the elderly relatives, and this frequently produces constant and unremitting levels of stress, which again, is recognised as a major trigger for psychological morbidity. (Davies TW 1994) All of these factors, when considered collectively, appear to exert a significant influence on the overall patterns of gender specific distribution of psychiatric morbidity in the community at large. These factors are generally exacerbated (and the gender differences accentuated), when there are sudden and unpredicted fluctuations in the general income level or the stability of the social strata.(Murray M 1995). We have already alluded to the fact that the rates of diagnosis by the healthcare professionals tend to underestimate the true incidence of psychiatric morbidity in the community. It is likely that the healthcare professional can also skew the results in a different way. We know, from a number of studies, that gender bias occurs in both the diagnosis and treatment of mental conditions. Doctors have been shown to be more likely to make a diagnosis of depression in women than in men even when the cohorts have been previously matched in terms of symptom severity and when the present with matched symptoms. Doctors are also statistically more likely to prescribe psychotropic medication for women than for men. (Bhui K et al 1995), Why should this be? Part of the reason is that women have demonstrably different patterns of presentation of psychological morbidity than men. Women are more likely to be open and to disclose their problems to a healthcare professional than a man. Women tend to disclose problems to a primary healthcare team professional (and therefore be treated in the community), whereas a man is statistically more likely to present to a secondary care specialist (which is possibly why men have a disproportionately high representation of inpatient care) (Boswell G Poland F 2004) This may be due to the general perception of the gender stereotype. It is more â€Å"socially acceptable† for a man to have an alcohol problem. Some would argue that Dean Martin made a career out of his drinking. Women are â€Å"expected† to be more emotionally labile than men, and the typical male stereotype is to be stoical and unflinching in the face of adversity. These patterns of behaviour in both the general public, as well as in the perceptions of healthcare professionals, go a long way towards perpetuating many of the gender inequalities that we have examined thus far. It is certainly possible that they may be responsible, at least in part, for the apparent varying susceptibility of the sexes to different illness patterns. (Bandarage A 1997) Conclusions In this essay we have considered some of the evidence that related to the gender differences in the presentation and trajectory of mental illness. We note that the WHO recognises many of these factors on a global scale and has put forward three factors that it considers to be protective in the development of mental morbidity (especially depression). In the light of our discussion above, it can be seen that, although the WHO addresses the points generally to the whole population, they, arguably, have a greater relevance for women than men, certainly in our current culture in the UK. Having sufficient autonomy to exercise some control in response to severe events. Access to some material resources that allow the possibility of making choices in the face of severe events. Psychological support from family, friends, or health providers is powerfully protective. (WHO1998) We have established that women represent the greatest element of morbidity in the overall consideration of both psychiatric and psychological pathology. This may a real finding, but we note that there is a considerable element of bias in the figures, both from the differential rates of presentation and also relative gender bias that appears to exist in the healthcare professionals in general. There is also additional bias in the fact that women have a longer life expectancy than men and therefore have more â€Å"life chances† to present with psychiatric morbidity, quite apart from the fact that the morbidity rates increase with advancing age, primarily associated with the dementias and various organic brain syndromes (Russell D 1995). On a world wide basis, women are more susceptible to the destabilising effect of war, economic instability and natural disasters which add to the burden of negative life experiences that are a prime risk factor for the development of mental illness. (Brown GW 1978). We have also identified the fact that the woman’s position in her particular culture or society is also a very significant factor in generating gender differences. There are gender differences in society and therefore it clearly comes as no surprise that these differences are reflected in the gender differences in health generally. The woman, in the majority of cultures is expected to assume a number of different roles (sometimes simultaneously), each with their own pressures. The unremitting role of the carer is common and clearly a cause of chronic stress. This can be both combined with, and exacerbated by, situations of comparative poverty which again magnifies the effect of all of the negative stressors which can mitigate towards mental ill-health. Other factors such as sexual abuse can also play a gender specific role in the aetiology of mental illness. In the words of Masson, (J.M. 1986) in his historical overview of the field of psychological disability: There is a positive relationship between the frequency and severity of such social factors and the frequency and severity of mental health problems in women. Severe life events that cause a sense of loss, inferiority, humiliation or entrapment can predict depression. Some authors point to the difficulty of communication of the patient with the healthcare professional. In areas where there are cultural or perceived socio-economic differences, it is accepted that this may be a significant factor (Platt, FW Gordon GH 1999). If difficulty of communication is a problem, the conscientious healthcare professional should endeavour to be aware of it and minimise it’s potential impact with strategies such as a translator or perhaps a more empathetic or understanding approach. One could hope that this would go some way to reducing the burden of disclosure from a patient who may already have a significant burden of psychological illness themselves. All in all, we can conclude that the whole area of gender, in relation to mental health problems, is both difficult, multifactorial and complex. A significant amount of work has been done in this field, but there is clearly scope for a great deal more. References Annandale, Ellen (1998) The Sociology of Health Medicine A Critical Introduction. Cambridge: Polity 1998 APA 1994 American Psychiatric Association. DSM-IV. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: APA, 1994 Bandarage A 1997 Women, population and a global crisis London : Zed books 1997 Bayer, Ronald (1987) Homosexuality and American Psychiatry The Politics of Diagnosis. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 1987 Berwick D 2005 Broadening the view of evidence-based medicine Qual. Saf. Health Care, Oct 2005; 14: 315 316. Boswell G Poland F 2004 Women’s minds, Women’s bodies London: Routledge ISBN 0333919696 Brown, George W. Tiril Harris (1978) The Social Origins of Depression A Study of Psychiatric Disorder in Women. New York: The Free Press. 1978 Brown, G.W., S.Davidson T.Harris (1977) Psychiatric Disorder in London and North Uist Social Science and Medicine 11: 367-377 Bhui K, Christie Y, Bhugra D. 1995 Essential elements in culturally sensitive psychiatric services. Int J Soc Psychiatry 1995;41:242-56 Busfield, Joan (1996) Men, Women and Madness Understanding Gender and Mental Disorder. London: Macmillan. 1996 Castle DJ, John McGrath, Jayashri Kulkarni (eds) 2001 Women and Schizophrenia Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0 521 78617 7 : 2001 Davies TW. 1994 Psychosocial factors and relapse of schizophrenia. BMJ 1994;309:353-4. Gordon G, Welbourn A. 2001 Stepping stones and men. Washington,DC: InterAgency Gender Working Group, 2001. Green J, Britten N. 1998 Qualitative research and evidence based medicine. BMJ 1998; 316: 1230-1233 Jewkes R 2002 Preventing domestic violence BMJ, Feb 2002; 324: 253 254 ; Kaplan HI, Sadcock BJ 1991 Synposis of Psychiatry, behavioural Sceinces Baltimore: Maryland Wilkins Wilkins 1991 Kornstein S Clayton A (eds) 2002 Womens Mental Health: A Comprehensive Textbook 2002 The Guilford Press, ISBN 1 57230 699 8 Kraemer S 2000 The fragile male BMJ, Dec 2000; 321: 1609 1612 ; Masson, J.M. (1986) A Dark Science. Women, Sexuality and Psychiatry in the Nineteenth Century. New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux. 1986 Moynihan C 1998 Theories in health care and research: Theories of masculinity BMJ, Oct 1998; 317: 1072 – 1075 Murray M.1995 Prevention of anxiety and depression in vulnerable groups. London: Royal College of Psychiatrists, 1995 Pattison H 2001 Women and Schizophrenia †¢ Women and Mental Health BMJ, Jul 2001; 323: 114 ; Penfold, P. Susan Gillian A.Walker (1984) Women and the Psychiatric Paradox. Milton Keynes: Open University. 1984 Platt, FW Gordon GH 1999 Field Guide to the Difficult Patient Interview 1999 Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, pp 250 ISBN 0 7817 2044 3 London: Macmillian Press 1999 Rogers A and David Pilgrim 2002 Mental Health and inequality London: Macmillan, ISBN 0333786572 : 2002 Russell, Denise (1995) Women, Madness and Medicine. Cambridge: Polity. 1995 Showalter, Elaine (1987) The Female Malady. Women, Madness and English Culture 1830-1980. London: Virago. 1987 Skultans, Vieda (1987) The Management of Mental Illness among Maharashtrian Families: A Case Study of a Mahanubhav Healing Temple. Man: Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 22(4):661-679 Szasz, Thomas S.(1971) The Manufacture of Madness. A Comparative Study of the Inquisition and the Mental Health Movement. London: Routledge. 1971 WHO 1998 World Health organisation 1998 The World Health Report Executive Summary   Geneva: World Health organisation 1998 ############################################################ 17.1.06 PDG Word count 2,813

Determining Databases and Data Communication Essay

Understanding technology is important when managing companies that have computer technology as their backbone. Knowing this information helps the employees responsible for information management to make informed choices about how to implement technology. These decisions allow the manager to successfully use time and resources in apparently menacing tasks. This is shown in the two scenarios. In the first scenario, a marketing assistant of a consumer electronics company is given the task of maintain booths for trade shows from the beginning to the end of the show, they are also responsible to solve any issues related to the product shipment that may arise. Knowing what information is important in making sure the right tools are used. Situations like those call for detailed lists of displays, equipment and booths are necessary, also how the equipment is going to be shipped and received. For example if a show is to be organized in Chicago with a requirement of one booth and display. The marketing assistant musk be certain that the booth with the display must be brought to the location in time and also be taken down and shipped backed for future use in the company. With knowing what the tracking number from the post office is a tab can be kept on the package through all stages of transport. Each show typically needs certain tools for maintaining information and tracking the equipment. Excel is a good way to start the tracking. However, it may not be useful with large sets of data and data that vary. A database maybe a more useful choice because it can store all types of data and the marketing assistant can generate reports for future reference while making changes (changing the shipment time to make sure it arrives on time) In cases like this where only one person is responsible for a large database it is a good idea to use a database management systems that are available across all department of an organization. This gives all the control to one person for several departments. This also prevents confusion when many employees come together to manage information. When the marketing assistant faces the task of maintain and managing mass data related to the show, there needs to be a decision support system (DSS)Â  to help them in the process. A DSS can be describes as a computer system capable of assisting in the evaluation and determination of action plans by data collected from previous dealings of the company. The data is then analyzed by statistical tools for data interpretation. The process can help provide valuable insights to marketing assistant in improving future shows. In the second scenario, the objective is the proper management of a consulting team consisting of seven members with technology. Some of them work in the office and some work from home. In order for the business to run smoothly everyone need to be reached with equal effort. A way that this could happen is the use of a Wide Area Network or a WAN that could connect the employees across specific regions. Regardless of the employees’ physical location, all employees would be able to reach the same information. Most consulting projects have strict deadlines and all the employees must be allowed access to equipment like the printers and scanners connected to the network. This could create some security concerns while working on the WAN. It is possible that hackers could breach the network and put malicious malware or viruses on the devices. This of course could be prevented with certain programs that protect against malware and viruses. A wireless connection is also a good idea when needing remote access. Wireless is similar to WAN in that it can provide access to employees to information secured in the workplace. A virtual private network or a VPN needs to be installed to deal with concerns for privacy. A VPN is good because it withhold sensitive information from non employees by giving them access rights. This helps with incidents such as malware or virus program attacks which could affect functionality. Cost and features are important factors when choosing which route to go. The information regarding to wireless networks needs to help in choosing the right wireless network can be stored in an Excel document. The price cannot be the deciding factor when purchasing. Speed and security features are also important when deciding. It is important to make a list prioritizing and listing features of the network necessary for the company. This way a wireless network can be found at a minimal cost. Knowledge of technology that are made use of in a company can go a long way in helping supervisors and managers decide upon the tools to be used in a more efficient and smart manner. In the first scenario the marketing assistant is able to use a database to organize the information need for the trade show. The second scenario shows where WAN and wireless networking enables a consulting team to access data securely and on a strict time schedule with no regards to their physical location. These scenarios show the usefulness of technology in a business setting.

Notes on Economic Essay Samples in Step by Step Order

Notes on Economic Essay Samples in Step by Step Order Secondly, your thoughts ought to be well-organized and supported with the assistance of persuasive evidence. Hence, if you're not confident in your writing skills, think about asking us for aid. It's simple to get distracted by attempting to answer the question as opposed to remembering that you have more to reply. Be certain to read and reread the question carefully and make sure that you understand it before you commence writing. When you're planning the response to an essay question, you shouldn't be too concerned with producing the conventional answer' because it doesn't exist. Fortunately, you don't need to do anything formal once you're attempting to compose an essay quickly. It's well worth repeating that in a financial essay, it's especially essential to abide by your essay's major question in any respect times throughout the entirety of your writing. An argumentative essay is a sort of thesis or composition in which you have to present your view and try to convince others your facts and arguments are correct. Now you have briefly expanded the principal argument of your economic essay in its introduction, you've set the tone for the remainder of your writing. It's evident that the absolute most voluminous portion of an essay is its body paragraphs since they include all of the information and evidence. In a great introduction to any essay, it's also advisable to forecast for your reader the significant points that you're going to be making. You present the info from your research in the primary body of your essay, so right now we're speaking only about them. The Good, the Bad and Economic Essay Samples The prices of our very best essay writing service aren't the highest and not the lowest on the marketplace. Use points on the diagram to spell out WHY greater demand for ice cream is the reason for the amount of ice cream to rise. Both women and men in today's world supply their labor in the industry. Essay writing is usually practiced is schools. Whatever you write on paper is con sidered. Therefore, very good essay writing skills are crucial for obtaining a great grade in the examination. Thirdly, you need to ensure the validity of writing. If you're able to write a suitable academic essay, it is going to aid you greatly in your studies since you will get far better grades and earn your teachers' respect. You will need to understand how to compose an effective essay as it is a typical foundation for a student's grade. Some students will have the ability to write more than others, since they write more quickly. Many students don't know where to begin or which topic to select. The difference between the whole inflow and the overall outflow of foreign exchange is referred to as the balance of payments of a nation. The very first argument, which is economic, is they use them to safeguard the infant market. Secondly, precisely the same principle applies to the remainder of your essay, and not just in terms of vocabulary, phraseology, etc.. When individuals become married, there are several financial implications of the exact same. After having conducted a profound research and having sufficient quantity of material accessible, you ought to start thinking about just what you should write in your economic essay. The main reason is that some individuals have excellent writing skills while some don't. So you'll have some source material to work with for your practice session, take a couple of minutes to do a little bit of quick, informal research through internet searches to obtain a concept of a few points on either side of the problem. The crucial problem in decision making is to maintain the most suitable balance between the future and short run considerations. It can be useful to highlight the key phrases or phrases you see in the prompt. Therefore, if you want to use some more helpful materials, don't be scared to purchase customized essays at EssayBasics. There are distinct methods for structuring several types of essays. You can be certain once you get started writing the actual essay your ideas are all on-point. Just open our English essay example and discover out what's written in an essay and the way that it is written. Example essays concentrate on one principal idea that you prove with different specific, convincing examples. Writing an essay is a vital role in academe life. The example essay is among the absolute most basic essays in academic writing, but may be exceedingly difficult if you've never written one or don't know what things to write about.

Analysis of the Pros and Cons of Globalization - 1212 Words

Globalization Introduction The continued accelerating pace of change in globalization is forcing an entirely new level of emphasis on individualized, highly targeted marketing across the many regions and countries of the world. Global marketing today must contend with a wider array of constraints, both economic and cultural, that as ever been the case in the past (Gupta, 2003). These constraints fuel a high level of creativity and focus on how to overcome cultural and economic constraints through rapid product development lifecycles, exceptional levels of supply chain integration (Wu, 2011) and greater focus on relationship market over just selling with a transaction mindset alone (Hansen, 2008). The pros and cons of globalization of form the foundation of todays highly competitive global marketing arena, forcing many companies to be more focused on the strategic and long-range over the tactical while compensation for a rapidly changing cultural mix of factors (Osland, 2003). The pros and cons of globalization are evaluated and the unique factors of global marketing also analyzed. Analysis of the Pros and Cons of Globalization One of the most positive aspects of globalization continues to be the exponential increase in job creation and the development of increasingly more sophisticated, high speed supply chain management systems that drive entire industrys value chains. Globalization is extremely powerful in getting companies who had been very inward-centric andShow MoreRelatedNetflix: Flex to the Max1010 Words   |  5 Pagesmodel that has worked so well in the past and how can Netflix gain a larger consumer base leading to market share. Vantage Points Consider globalization as a potential area to gain market share Reassess high labor costs Explore a hybrid model of media-based and electronic distribution Diagnosis Pro-Globalization Netflix can consider globalization as a potential approach of gaining market share. 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